Pesticide-Associated Health and Environmental Risks and the Role of Biofertilizers in Sustainable Agriculture

1. INTRODUCTION

With nearly 40% of the workforce employed in agriculture and a 12.9% GDP contribution, it is the cornerstone of Bangladesh's economy [1]. A population of more than 180 million depends on the production of a variety of crops, including rice, vegetables, jute, tea, and fruits, which are made possible by the country's rich soils and temperate climate [2]. In 2022, farmers used 3.70 million tonnes of pesticides worldwide, 4% more than in 2021, 13% more than ten years ago, and double the amount used in 1990 [3]. Despite increasing crop yields, these chemical inputs cause serious risks to food safety, public health, and environmental sustainability [4]. Furthermore, 40% of fresh vegetables and 25% of rice samples in Bangladesh have been reported to exceed FAO/WHO maximum residue limits, which testifies to weak regulatory enforcement and low farmer knowledge on the safe handling of pesticides [5, 6]. Studies report that roughly 27% of farmers suffer from pesticide-related ailments, including acute poisoning, respiratory issues, and skin irritation, with chronic exposure linked to long-term illnesses like cancer, neurological damage, and endocrine disruption [7, 8]. The absence of proper safety measures, training, and equipment even exacerbates the scenario, causing harmful chemical residues of pesticides in food, water, and soil, posing a silent shocking health crisis for both farmers and consumers [9]. Environmental consequences include soil microbial degradation, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity, which further undermine agricultural sustainability [10]. Among these challenges, biofertilizers and biopesticides, which leverage beneficial microorganisms to enhance soil fertility, promote plant growth, and reduce reliance on chemical inputs, offer a promising, eco-friendly alternative [11, 12]. Biofertilizers, especially those incorporating plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), offer significant prospects as sustainable alternatives to synthetic pesticides by combining nutrient recycling with biocontrol properties that suppress plant pathogens and pests through mechanisms such as antibiosis, nutrient competition, siderophore production, and induced systemic resistance [13]. This dual functionality not only enhances crop productivity and soil fertility but also mitigates environmental risks like soil degradation, water contamination, and biodiversity loss associated with chemical pesticides, positioning biofertilizers as key players in integrated pest management for eco-friendly agriculture [14]. Complementarily, biopesticides encompassing microbial agents, phytopesticides, and nanobiopesticides provide targeted control of pests and pathogens through mechanisms like antibiosis and induced resistance, exhibiting low toxicity, biodegradability, and reduced risk of resistance development compared to conventional chemicals [15, 16]. However, challenges such as limited shelf life persist, necessitating further research and development to enhance stability and efficacy [17]. 

This minireview examines the scope of Bangladesh’s pesticide crisis, its detrimental impacts on human health and the environment, and the transformative potential of biofertilizers to ensure a safer, more sustainable agricultural future.

2. PESTICIDE EXPOSURE AND HUMAN HEALTH RISKS

2.1. Human Health Risks of Pesticide Use in Bangladesh

Pesticide use in Bangladesh poses significant health risks, including acute poisoning and long-term chronic effects, which are just two of the many negative health impacts of pesticide exposure. Agricultural workers and farmers are the most vulnerable group living at risk because they are directly exposed when handling, mixing, and spraying chemical fertilizer. However, consumers can also be inadvertently exposed by consuming tainted food or drink.

As shown in Figure 1, acute pesticide poisoning is quite frequent in the rural areas of Bangladesh. Headaches, nausea, vomiting, skin irritation, lightheadedness, blurred vision, and respiratory syndromes are the most common symptoms seen in the case of pesticide poisoning [18]. Those who are affected may not have access to instant medical attention in several cases, and official figures underreport the symptoms too. Besides, farmers' lack of knowledge about proper handling procedures and poor awareness make the situation worse. According to studies, a significant percentage of farmers in Bangladesh, while applying pesticides in the field, do not use gloves or masks [19].

Public health impacts from chronic chemical exposure can manifest years after the initial interaction, making it more pernicious. Carcinogenesis, neurotoxicity, endocrine disruption, reproductive abnormalities, and impaired child development have all been directly linked to long-term pesticide exposure [20]. For instance, learning disabilities and neurological impairments are associated with exposure to organophosphates, which are still in common use in Bangladesh. Khatun et al. [21] conducted a systematic review that found alarming levels of contamination in the food supply of Bangladesh: about 29% of vegetables, roughly, had pesticide residues, 73% of which exceeded international maximum residue limits (MRLs). A lot more vegetables harvested in our country and consumed are highly contaminated, e.g., tomato, cucumber, cauliflower, and eggfruit. Nevertheless, the regular uptake of these adulterated vegetables by our end-users is deteriorating their immunity by placing them into long-term health hazards. In addition, these findings are more consistent with previous research, which found the presence of residues of an alarming nineteen different pesticides in fresh vegetables from Bangladeshi markets [21, 22]. This finding has revealed the intensified risks of synergistic detrimental effects by conducting an assay of a number of residual presences in a single food sample. The dangers of contamination are exacerbated by dint of lacking enforcement and longer pesticide withdrawal timing, which escalates a systemic risk to public health in the long run. 

Figure 1. Pesticides exposure and human health risks. 

2.2. Pesticide Exposure and Vulnerable Populations

Pesticide exposure poses significant health risks to vulnerable populations, including the elderly, women, and children, who are more susceptible due to physiological and socioeconomic factors. Children are particularly at risk because their developing detoxification systems are less efficient, and they consume higher amounts of fruits and vegetables relative to their body weight [23, 24]. Pregnant women face increased risks of adverse reproductive outcomes, such as miscarriage, low birth weight, and congenital anomalies, due to pesticide exposure [25, 26].

 The elderly, with compromised immune systems and reduced metabolic capacity, are also highly vulnerable to the toxic effects of pesticides [27]. Additionally, low-income agricultural workers in Bangladesh, often residing near treated fields, face discriminating risks of household contamination through pesticide residues on clothing, agricultural tools, and environmental media such as water and air [28, 29]. These factors underscore that pesticide exposure in Bangladesh is a critical public health issue, extending beyond occupational hazards to impact rural and urban communities alike.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF PESTICIDE OVERUSE

Figure 2 demonstrated the widespread and excessive use of pesticides in agriculture. They are employed to enhance crop yields by controlling pests, but their overuse has led to detrimental environmental and public health consequences. These include soil microbial degradation, water contamination, loss of biodiversity, and contributions to climate change. The following part explores briefly these environmental consequences to reduce pesticide dependence in Bangladesh. 

3.1. Soil Microbial Degradation

The fragile equilibrium of soil microbiota, which is necessary for nitrogen fixation and organic matter biodegradation, becomes disrupted by pesticides. It has been demonstrated that the use of chemical pesticides, such as carbamates and organophosphates, lowers the number of helpful microorganisms like Azotobacter and Rhizobium, thereby lowering soil fertility [30, 31]. In order to make up for nutrient deficiencies, farmers are forced to use synthetic fertilizers, which causes the deterioration of soil health and raises agricultural expenses [32]. This eventually leads to a cycle of dependency that threatens environmentally friendly agricultural practices. 

3.2. Water Contamination

Pesticide runoff during monsoon seasons contaminates rivers, canals, and groundwater systems, posing a significant threat to drinking water sources in Bangladesh. In flood-prone areas, where waterlogging is common, pesticide leaching into surface and groundwater is a critical issue [33]. Studies have detected high levels of pesticide residues, such as DDT and endosulfan, in water bodies across rural Bangladesh, leading to bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms and potential human exposure through the food chain [34, 35]. This contamination not only affects human health but also disrupts aquatic ecosystems, reducing fish populations vital for local livelihoods [36].

Figure 2. Impacts on the environments of pesticides overuse. 

3.3. Loss of Biodiversity 

Beneficial species, such as pollinators (like bees and butterflies) and natural pest predators (like ladybugs and spiders), are harmed by pesticides in ways that are not specific to their targets [37]. Food security is impacted by crop pollination disruptions caused by declining pollinator populations [38]. Furthermore, an ecological imbalance caused on by the loss of natural pest predators causes pests to reappear and necessitates the use of additional pesticides [39]. This vicious cycle raises farmers' financial burdens while sustaining environmental degradation. 

3.4. Climate Change Interactions

The production, transportation, and application of pesticides contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) [40]. Moreover, pesticide-stressed soils exhibit reduced carbon sequestration capacity and release higher levels of CO₂ and N₂O, exacerbating climate change [41]. In Bangladesh, where agriculture is a significant contributor to the economy, the environmental footprint of pesticide use underscores the need for sustainable alternatives to mitigate climate impacts.

4. BIOFERTILIZERS AS A SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE

A safer alternative to synthetic pesticides and fertilizers is a matter of prime concern to mitigate escalating public health risks and environmental damage. Biofertilizers, derived from beneficial microorganisms such as Rhizobium, Azospirillum, and Bacillus, provide a sustainable approach by enhancing soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, phosphorus solubilization, and plant growth promotion without the adverse environmental impacts of chemical inputs [42]. Numerous microorganisms, including Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Acinetobacter, Serratia, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, and Azospirillum, are known to fix atmospheric nitrogen into bioavailable forms within the plant root microbiome, thereby reducing dependence on synthetic nitrogen fertilizers [43]. For instance, Azotobacter chroococcum can fix 10 mgN/g of in-vitro provided carbon source, making it a suitable biofertilizate [44-48]. In addition, certain bacteria and fungi solubilize insoluble phosphates, improving phosphorus uptake by plant roots; since the 1950s, phosphorus-dissolving bacteria have been used as biofertilizers to convert soil phosphorus into plant-available forms [49, 50]. Recent studies have identified several endophytic bacterial genera, including Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Acinetobacter, Serratia, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, and Morganella, isolated from rice, brinjal, and rhizospheric soils, as effective phosphate solubilizers [45-47]. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) also stimulate root hair and lateral root development through the production of phytohormones such as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) [50], while some strains exhibit biocontrol properties by producing antimicrobial compounds, antibiotics, or by inducing systemic resistance in plants, thereby reducing disease incidence [46, 51]. Furthermore, certain bacterial strains enhance plant growth, such as Ziziphus jujuba, by elevating IAA and reducing abscisic acid (ABA) levels [52], and rhizospheric bacteria, PGPR, and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can produce secondary metabolites and alkaloids beneficial to plant health [53]. 

Biofertilizer-associated microbes also influence carbon fixation and modulate greenhouse gas emissions (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O), highlighting their role in sustainable agroecosystems [54]. As shown in Figure 3, list of endophytic bacteria capable of growing on minimal nutrient medium with diazinon as the sole carbon source promoted rice plant growth and yield in the absence of pesticide. These strains, isolated from the roots, shoots, and leaves of rice plants cultivated in Dinajpur, degraded both chlorpyrifos and diazinon into non-toxic compounds that served as carbon sources in vitro [50].

Figure 3. List of endophytic bacteria demonstrated their growth in minimal nutrient media where diazinon as the sole carbon sources and accelerated rice plants growth and yield promotion without any pesticide [50].

As illustrated in Figure 4, compared to chemical inputs, biofertilizers are non-toxic, safe for human health, cost-effective for farmers, and enhance soil fertility and structure over time. Recently, large-scale liquid cultures of biofertilizer-potential endophytic bacterial consortia have been developed in a biogrowth chamber for commercial applications [49]. 

Notably, biofertilizers have already been integrated into national agricultural strategies in countries such as China, India, and Nepal, where positive outcomes have been observed. In India, for example, nearly 25% less nitrogen fertilizer is required when widely used biofertilizers such as Azospirillum, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Bacillus, and Pseudomonas are applied [49, 51].  Fungal biopesticides have shown similar results; in China, the use of mycorrhizal fungi during cultivation has improved crop resistance against drought stress [55]. 

These regional models could serve as valuable lessons for Bangladesh, where the adoption of biofertilizers remains relatively limited despite their significant potential. However, several challenges hinder their widespread use in Bangladesh, including nominal awareness among cultivators, insufficient production facilities, reluctant regulatory frameworks, and weak quality control mechanisms. To overcome these barriers, a coordinated multi-sectoral initiative is essential, focusing on financial assistance for biofertilizer production and marketing, enacting regulations to control import and sale, strengthening pesticide residue monitoring in the food market, expanding in-field microbial inoculant trials, and developing locally adapted PGPR and endophytic strains with plant growth-promoting and biodegradation traits. Moreover, the establishment of quality-assessment laboratories at public universities, improved agricultural extension services to reinforce integrated pest management (IPM) through combined use of biofertilizers and minimal chemicals, the creation of demonstration flag-plots in rural areas to build farmer confidence, and the promotion of biofertilizers in agribusiness through public-private partnerships and supply chain models are necessary steps to ensure successful adoption and long-term sustainability of biofertilizer use in Bangladesh.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of synthetic pesticides effects on human and environment and their mitigation approach with potential biofertilizers.

5. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

Bangladesh faces dual challenges from the extensive use of chemical pesticides: a growing public health burden arising from pesticide exposure and harmful residues in food, and an environmental sustainability crisis caused by ecological contamination. Without timely intervention, the country risks accelerating environmental degradation and an increased prevalence of chronic diseases. Biofertilizers and biopesticides present eco-friendly, scientifically validated alternatives that support climate resilience, public health security, and sustainable agriculture, with several studies from public universities already highlighting their potential. To realize this paradigm shift, Bangladesh must prioritize investments in research, farmer education, public–private partnerships, and legislative reforms that facilitate large-scale biofertilizer adoption. In addition, requires a coherent national policy framework that ensures financial incentives for biofertilizer production and distribution, strict quality control standards, and effective regulatory oversight of imports and commercialization. By replacing harmful chemical inputs with natural alternatives such as biofertilizers, the nation can safeguard human health, restore ecological balance, and build resilient, sustainable, and safe food systems for the future. 

6. CONCLUSIONS

Although extensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has increased crop yields, there have been detrimental effects on the environment and human health. Widespread pesticide misuse has been shown to degrade soil fertility, contaminate water sources, reduce biodiversity, exacerbate the effects of climate change, and pose acute and long-term health risks to farmers, vulnerable populations, and consumers. Both the long-term viability of agriculture and public health are at risk due to these issues. An effective, environmentally responsible substitute is offered by biofertilizers and biopesticides. They can lessen reliance on dangerous chemicals, improve soil health, and encourage sustainable crop production by using beneficial microorganisms for nutrient cycling, growth promotion, and natural pest suppression. Other nations' experiences show that widespread use of biofertilizers is both practical and successful. For Bangladesh, realizing these benefits requires coordinated action: strengthening regulations and residue monitoring, investing in biofertilizer research and production, establishing quality-control laboratories, and expanding farmer education and demonstration programs. Promoting public–private partnerships and creating supportive policy frameworks will be essential to overcome current barriers. In summary, transitioning toward biofertilizer-based agriculture is critical to protect human health, ensure environmental sustainability, and secure resilient food systems in Bangladesh.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We extend our heartfelt gratitude to all those who contributed to the successful completion of this research project.

FUNDING SOURCE

The study was conducted to fulfill an academic purpose. There were no funding sources available for this study.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflict of interest. All aspects of this research were conducted impartially and independently. No financial or personal relationships with other people or organizations have influenced this work.

ETHICS STATEMENT

This study did not involve any experiments on human participants or animals; therefore, formal written informed consent was not required. All figures in this study were created with modifications based on relevant referenced sources; therefore, no permission for reuse is required for any figure presented herein. 

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